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The Berlin Airlift Part 4 (New Hope)

Jim Benvie — Fri, 16 Jan 2026 21:39:49 +0000

Introduction

During my research for this series of posts I read numerous books and articles, none of which even hinted at the segregated military that governed post war Germany. Then, I discovered a New York Times Magazine article from February 2019, titled; “When Jim Crow reigned amid the rubble of Nazi Germany”, by Alexis Clark*.

Given the current civil rights situation it gave me pause, and I decided to add an additional post to the series.

Am I just trying to sully what was arguable America’s finest hour?

No; America did step up and underwrote the freedom of millions of Europeans (Certainly 2.25 million Berliners).

However, as someone who grew up in Europe, it is difficult to understand the dichotomy of a nation that could rail against the Soviet or Nazi persecution, whilst treating a section of its own population in a shoddy and underhand way.

A New Nation

Back in the 1776, residents of what would become the United States of America

“brought forth on this continent, a new nation, conceived in Liberty, and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal.”

It was the outcome of Enlightenment thinking, but there was a problem. Just as in George Orwell’s “Animal Farm”, all were equal, but some were more equal than others.

The new republic would struggle with the question of slavery for its first four score and four years. Periodically the divisions would build to bursting point, only for a last-minute compromise to be agreed, and the status quo resumed, for a few more years.

A House Divided

The 1860 election of Abraham Lincoln as the 16^th President of the United States, proved a tipping point. Southern states began to secede from the Union and formed the Confederate States of America. Representatives of these states and the Confederacy made it clear they were leaving to preserve their “peculiar institution”, in both written and spoken word.

The forces of South Carolina besieged the Union garrison at Fort Sumter, in Charleston bay, and prevented U.S. naval forces from relieving it. On the 11^th of April 1861 Lincoln called for 75,000 volunteers. On the 12^th South Carolinian forces opened fire on the fort, and it surrendered the following day.

The Civil War had begun.

Both sides started the war with all white armies and would continued so until 1863.

Union General Benjamin Butler’s action in May 1861 started a process that would eventually lead to the recruitment of African Americans into the Union Army. When a southern officer demanded the return of 3 slaves who had escaped to the Union lines, Butler refused, neatly turning the Southern arguments against them. He reasoned that since they were considered in the south as property and were being used to further the war aims of the Confederacy, he would retain them as contraband of war. Butler a political appointee proved to be a better lawyer than general.

This practice was continued and extended and soon every Union camp would have numbers of “contraband” associated with it, eventually these former slaves were being paid to perform various tasks about camp. However, there was resistance to the suggestion that they could serve as soldiers.

By 1863, following the Emancipation Proclamation¹, the pressure increased, especially in abolitionist leaning states, to form regiments of African Americans. One of the first being the 54^th Massachusetts famous for its attack on Fort Wagner, depicted in the movie Glory. African American regiments would go on to serve with distinction for the remainder of the Civil War.

The Bureau for Colored Troops was formed on the 22^nd of May 1863, and many of the state regiments were incorporated into Federal service, under the designation United States Colored Troops. (USCT)

They had to overcome many more obstacles than their white comrades.

Until June 1864 they were paid only $7/month whereas white soldiers received $13/month. (some units steadfastly refused to accept any wages, but continued to serve, until the inequality was addressed)
Confederates would not treat the USCT as prisoners of war and they were killed and often tortured, out of hand. This was also often the fate of their white officers. This practice was ended (at least officially) when General Grant indicated that if the practice did not cease, the Union would reciprocate.
Even in the North there was prejudice and many Union Generals did not believe the USCT would fight. (Time and again they were proved wrong) General Thomas (more of him in a later post) a Virginian who remained loyal to the Union, was one who was won over by their performance. After one battle when asked if the dead should be separated for burial, he replied that they fell together let them be buried together.

During the war 25 African Americans won the – newly created – Medal of Honor.

On June the 19^th 1865 General Granger proclaimed emancipation in Galveston Texas.

“The people of Texas are informed that in accordance with a Proclamation from the Executive of the United States, all slaves are free. This involves an absolute equality of rights and rights of property between former masters and slaves, and the connection heretofore existing between them becomes that between employer and hired laborer.”

This was followed by the ratification of the 13^th amendment in December 1865 freeing all slaves, the 14^th amendment guaranteeing equal treatment under the law in 1868, and the 15^th Amendment in1870, giving voting rights to all.

For those African Americans who had fought and bled for the Union it seemed that justice would prevail and “that this nation, under God, shall have a new birth of freedom”.

Some would remain in the Army in the new regular regiments, (24^th and 25^th infantry; 9^th and 10^th cavalry), the famed buffalo soldiers, serving in the Indian and Spanish American wars.

The 10^th cavalry served with distinction at the battle of San Juan hill, but were overshadowed by the publicity seeking Teddy Roosevelt and his “Rough Riders”

During the Indian and Spanish American wars 24 African Americans won the Medal of Honor.

By then the early promise of the post war years had been quashed and replaced by the draconian “Jim Crow” laws in southern states. These nullified all the gains of the 13^th ,14^th and 15^th amendments, and African Americans found themselves in a separate but decidedly unequal situation.

World War One

Despite this when the U.S. entered WWI African Americans again stepped up to serve their country in the segregated military.

General Pershing the commander of the American Expeditionary Force (AEF), was adamant that U.S. troops would serve together under American command, well the white units anyway.

Many African American units were assigned to labor and other non-fighting roles, but several were split off and assigned to the French army and would serve for the rest of the war with distinction. (This is why pictures of the time often show them in American uniforms but with French equipment, weapons, and helmets)

Again, despite exemplary service they returned home to the same prejudice.

During WWI only 2 African Americans won the Medal of Honor, and those only decades after the events. Probably due to the increased systemic racism.

Members of the Harlem Hell-fighters (369^th) displaying the Croix de Guerre

World War Two

WWII saw the same segregation and dismissive attitudes.

Not only was the military segregated but, the American military wanted to introduce the same segregation in Britain as they had at home, a move unpopular with the British public.

Lynne Olsen in her book the “Citizens of London” describes the British reactions to the segregation attempts.

How bus conductors would tell African American servicemen they did not have to give up their seat, “You are in Britain now.”

The British military acquiesced to American requests for segregation, and on one occasion when this was being explained to British servicemen, they hooted and compared it to the Nazis.

To avoid clashes the American military would try to stagger passes to keep black and white servicemen apart. However, when they called for pubs to be segregated, with typical British bloody mindedness, some landlords put up sign “Brits and Blacks only”.

She recounts one Brit’s, possibly, apocryphal comment.

“I don’t mind the Yanks, but I don’t care much for the white fellows they brought with them”.

I do not want to give the impression that white Americans were universally disliked, because that was not the case, there is ample evidence of warm relationships between, both black and white, American servicemen and British families. There were also many G.I. brides who moved to America after the war. After D-Day the military postal service said that around a third of all mail from servicemen in Europe had British addresses. It was just the British sense of fair play. (This is not to deny that Britain had its own religious, class and racial prejudices, but those are for another day)

Alexis Clark* in her article gives several examples of exemplary service from black units, including the 761^st Tank Battalion and the Tuskegee airmen.

As with WWI there were no African Americans awarded the Medal of Honor, at the time or shortly after the war. Eventually in in 1997 President Bill Clinton awarded 7 Medals of Honor. (6 posthumously)

Post War

By the time of the Berlin Airlift little had changed, and African Americans were still second-class servicemen, and citizens.

But as in Britain they were popular with the local Germans.

In her article Alexis outlines the fact that the conditions of African Americans were being documented by the N.A.A.C.P and the press and that it was becoming problematic, because whilst the U.S. was pushing for free and fair elections in Europe and attacking the Soviets for shady practices, some of the servicemen in Germany to oversee those elections did not have the same rights to vote at home. The Soviets of course used these facts to deflect whenever they were pressed on fair elections.

President Truman formed a Presidential committee to review the situation. Its report suggested several reforms, one of which was a desegregated military.

So, on the 26^th of July 1948 Harry Truman signed an executive order desegregating the military. There was much foot dragging but it was finally put in place. It took 40 years until the only African American to date became Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. (General Colin Powell)

Whilst the army was desegregating the civilian world also took some torturous steps forward.

May 1957 – The Supreme Court in Brown v Board of Education effectively ended school segregation
September 1957 – The Civil Rights Act 1957, protected voting rights
July 1964 – The Civil Rights Act 1964 protected against employment discrimination.
April 1968 – The Civil Rights Act 1968 protected equal housing rights.

Things had not moved far in the hundred years since the 15^th Amendment.

Conclusion

Where does that leave us fifty years later and why are we still, arguing about civil rights, and police conduct.

Cast your mind back to the first post in this series and you will recall that I mentioned that the allies were very clear at the start of the occupation of Germany that the German people must understand that they lost the war.

Why?

Because after WWI elements in Germany formulated a false history called “The stab in the back”. In that history the German army was not defeated but was betrayed by politicians and Jews. This false narrative was eventually taken up by the Nazis, and we all know what happened next.

Our current problems I contend also stem from a false narrative by a defeated combatant.

“The Lost Cause”

The Civil War was about States’ Rights or whatever, but NOT about slavery.

The South just wanted to keep pure the ideals of the founders.

It was impossible not to accept they had lost; the defeat was just too decisive.

Although a Southerner could whip 10 Yankees, there were just too many Yankees, too many green backs². The cavaliers performed heroically but, in the end, the thuggish Yankee overcame by brute force.

If this false narrative continues to be perpetuated, we will struggle to move forward.

There should be no debate on Confederate battle flags or Army base names.

The South seceded to protect slavery and those who fought and killed US soldiers in that war were traitors.

For those currently saying we cannot forget our history, I say absolutely, we should remember our history, not some lost cause fantasy.

If we do that, maybe, we can move forward on the more serious civil rights issues.

African Americans have proved that despite prejudice, they are willing to step-up when the Republic calls. We owe it to them to give preference to their perspective, over that of those who sought to tear our Republic down.

What part of:

“One Nation under God, indivisible, with liberty and justice for all.”

is not clear?

Top Lesson for Project Managers

If you have a failed project, perform rigorous analysis, and resist the temptation to come up with a soft, face-saving narrative, it will only lead to many future difficulties and unintended consequences.

NOTES

*You can view the article here:

https://www.nytimes.com/2020/02/19/magazine/blacks-wwii-racism-germany.html

¹ Lincoln announced the Emancipation Proclamation on the 22^nd of September 1862, and it went into effect on the 1^st of January 1863. The proclamation freed the slaves ONLY in those states in rebellion. This was done as a matter of expediency. It was enough to prevent any European nations from recognizing the Confederacy, but not enough to force the border slave states to leave the Union.

Only those slaves who were close to and able to reach Union lines benefitted. The numbers would increase as the Union armies captured more of the Confederacy.

² Green Backs were paper currency issued by the US government during the war. (They had green backs, hence the name) They were legal tender, previously only gold and silver coins issued by the government were legal tender.

³ JFK Civil Rights address 11th June 1963

https://www.americanrhetoric.com/speeches/jfkcivilrights.htm

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The Berlin Airlift Part 3 (The Colossus Awakens)

Jim Benvie — Sun, 11 Jan 2026 00:56:06 +0000

Introduction

Tunner quickly went about introducing order and structure to what he called a “cowboy operation”.

There would be a rigid schedule for flights, pilots would be assigned to aircraft with specific take-off and arrival times.

The aircraft would fly at five altitudes. Aircraft at one altitude would be separated by 15 minutes. Aircraft would take-off and land at 3-minute intervals.

Radio beacons along the route allowed the crews to maintain the correct separations.

There would be no deviation and no room for initiative. This was deadly serious, and lives were at stake.

Measure Everything

Tunner was data driven and believed that a successful airlift should be routine, in fact boring, there was no room for the wild freewheeling atmosphere that prevailed before his arrival. Tunner believed that aircraft should, be flying, loading/unloading, or being maintained in preparation to fly. The same was true of pilots, they should be flying, training, or resting in preparation for flying.

He had analyzed the failed German airlift during the siege of Stalingrad and concluded that the Germans had the aircraft and resources to have succeeded; the problem was one of organization.

Tunner and his team started gathering statistics on every aspect of the airlift and displayed the data on boards at the various airlift bases.

The daily tonnage started to rise but these measures could only achieve so much. More aircraft were required, as well as better maintenance facilities and procedures.

There was also a lack of landing capacity in Berlin, and what was available was deteriorating rapidly under the 24/7 operation. Indeed, groups of German civilians (mostly women) were employed to rush onto the runway after each landing. With nothing more than hand tools and wheelbarrows they repaired the damage done by the landing, and just as quickly rushed off before the next plane.

The Candy Bomber

Whilst Tunner was “getting his feet under the table”, a young pilot was implementing and initiative that would have a have an enormous impact on the success of the airlift.

Gail Halverson had flown transport aircraft in secondary theatres during WWII.

Following the war, he renewed his enlistment and appeared set to have a competent but unremarkable career in and unfashionable branch of the air force.

When the airlift started, he was serving in the U.S. The crews were briefed on the situation and several C-54 crews were assigned to the airlift. One of them was his good friend. Since he was flying at the time Halverson called his wife to give her the news. With a new family she was devastated; this made Halverson think. He was single, so he requested that he be transferred to replace his friend. This was done and he was soon on his way to Germany.

Once in Germany he began to fly regular flights to Berlin but never had a chance to see the city. So, he hitched a flight to Berlin during his off time and had a tour of the ruined city. On return to the airport, he walked around and encountered a group of children at the end of the runway watching the planes. Somehow, they were able to communicate, and Halvorsen was impressed that they did not ask for anything. Before he left, he gave them the few sticks of gum he had, and promised if they were there next day, he would drop them some candy (Totally against the standing regulations). They asked how they would know his plane, he demonstrated that he would wiggle his wings.

He persuaded his crew (who were initially less than happy) to contribute their candy allowance. Realizing that the candy would not survive the drop, he crafted and tested rudimentary parachutes from handkerchiefs.

On their next flight he started to have some reservations but as they approach the airport, he saw the group of children in the same place. As he wiggled his wings, he saw them jump and wave. As they passed over the candy packages were dropped out through the flare chute, and “The Candy Bomber” was born.

Tegel

Meanwhile the efficiencies were having an effect and the daily tonnage figures climbed. For the first time on August 12^th, the tonnage figure exceeded the minimum requirement.

However, it was obvious that the efficiencies could only go so far and without more landing capacity the airlift would still fail.

On August 5^th work was begun on a new airfield at Tegel in the French Sector.

One of the problems was material. However, the allied bombing had produced vast quantities of rubble and an army of German women gathered and transported the rubble which was sorted and crushed to make the base for the runways.

These resilient Trummerfrauen (women of the rubble) who had survived, the allied bombing, the soviet storming of Berlin, and its grizzly aftermath and the post war austerity, worked day in day out to build this new airfield mostly by hand. There were still tasks which required heavy plant, but there was little or none in Berlin, until someone remembered a member of the Hump¹ team. He specialized in cutting-up heavy plant with a torch, shipping the parts and then welding them together at the other end. These parts were often still too large for the side loading C-54s, but not the rear loading Fairchild C-82 Packet.

The new airfield opened on November 5^th, completed in just 3 months, an incredible achievement of ingenuity and grit.

Maintenance

As conditions became better for the aircrews, the did not for the maintenance crews. There was an acute shortage of trained and competent maintenance personnel, and the condition of aircraft was deteriorating. Tunner had identified many ex-Luftwaffe, maintenance personnel, but there was opposition to the idea from Airforce brass, who believed there would be wide spreads sabotage. This was a decision that only general Clay could approve, but Tunner was prohibited from speaking to him directly.

Tunner contrived to be at Tempelhof airport when he knew that Clay would be passing through. At this “chance” meeting Clay of course asked how things were going and if he needed anything. Tunner explained the situation of the German mechanics and Clay immediately approved their recruitment. As he was leaving, he apparently said with a sly grin, “tell Curtis I said it was OK”.

Recruitment started immediately, however one issue still existed, all the manuals were in English and a rapid translation project was implemented.

Loading and Unloading

When the airlift started the loading and unloading procedures were erratic and, in some cases, inefficient. This resulted in the aircraft crews wandering off to the terminal for refreshments etc.

Everything was tightened up and the unloading/loading processes finally resembled modern day motor racing pit-stops. Mobile canteen facilities were available in the loading areas, so the crews could quickly re-board their planes and make the return journey.

Everything was done to realize Turner’s vision of efficiency.

Cargo

We have looked at several efficiencies and innovative ideas to improve the daily tonnage figures, but a great deal of effort went into determining what should be shipped.

British government departments after years of war and shortage, had a clear understanding of what was required for a healthy and balanced diet. This knowledge was used to determine what would give the best nutritional value for the lowest tonnage. With that in mind powdered potatoes were shipped, rather than the real thing.

It was also determined whether to ship a finished produce or the component parts. For example, bread contains a high proportion of water, so it was more efficient to ship flour and coal and bake the bread in Berlin.

In addition, a great deal of effort went into balancing loads, so that as far as possible each plane flew as close to its maximum payload as possible.

In the age before computers all this was done with slide rules.

The People

Ultimately projects come down to people, you can employ technologies and systems, but ultimately it is about what people do or are willing to do.

The Candy Bomber

With that in mind let us return to Gail Halvorsen.

His candy drops missions eventually drew attention, in the form of letters and cards from appreciative German children and parents, until one day a journalist witnessed a candy drop and noted Halverson’s tail number.

On landing he was ordered to report to his CO who informed him that General Tunner wanted to see him.

With some trepidation he reported to Tunner.

He was asked if he was dropping candy, to which he replied yes, fully expecting to be disciplined.

But Tunner recognized the publicity value of this and instructed Halverson to continue and expand the operation. They were even given permission to deviate from the rigid flight pattern.

So, a much-relieved Halvorsen returned to his unit, to step up the candy drops.

Later he was sent on a publicity trip to the US, making various appearances, resulting in huge support from individuals, organizations, and confectionary manufactures.

Years later, old German men and women would still fondly recall the effect the candy drops had on them as children.

The Politician

During the airlift, the Soviets made every effort to alternatively intimidate and cajole the population of West Berlin away from the allies.

Eventually an independent West Berlin council was established with Ernst Reuter as Mayor. A position he had been denied in 1946, by the Soviet veto.

As Clay worked to arrange more aircraft and resources he met with Reuter and asked him if the Berliners would hold out. Reuter informed him that the Berliners had no love for the Soviets and would continue to defy them even if the allies left.

On, September 9^th1948 Reuter addressed a massive crowd outside the ruined Reichstag building, imploring the west not to abandon Berlin, sending a clear message that Berliners would stand firm.

The Cartoonist

Tunner understood the value of communicating with the various teams, through notice boards, and the airlift newspaper the “Task Force Times”.

His radio operator Jake Schuffert was a talented cartoonist whose humorous cartoons featured in the newspaper and helped lift moral.

Tunner was a great believer in friendly rivalry to stimulate performance, as illustrated in one of Jake’s Cartoons.

The General

General Jean Ganeval was the French military commandant in Berlin, and in late 1949 he had a problem. The new airfield at Tegel was operational, but there were two large radio masts, which were a hazard to operations, that were controlled by the Soviet Radio Berlin. Despite repeated requests for a meeting and requests to relocate the masts, the Soviet commandant steadfastly ignored them. Losing patience Ganeval, informed the Soviets that if the situation were not resolved by December 16^th, he would act. Nothing was heard.

On December 16^th, French troops surrounded the masts and removed the German and Soviet staff, who were later bussed back to the Soviet sector.

French engineers blew both towers, and the hazards were removed.

Shortly afterwards General Kotikov the soviet commandant, stormed into Ganeval’s office screaming “How could you do it”.

Ganeval is said to have replied with a Gallic shrug, “Très simple. Avec le dynamite!”.

Victory

The airlift went from strength to strength despite some bleak days during the winter of 48/49. By spring 1949 the average daily tonnages were steadily climbing.

Tunner decided to have a massive 24 hr. push for Easter, named the Easter Parade. The target was 10,000 tons and 1,400 flights.

The final tally was 12,941 tons and 1,398 flights. (This was more than the average daily shipment by land prior to the blockade)

It now became clear to the Soviets that they had lost.

Not only had the west demonstrated that they could supply Berlin by air, but many eastern German companies were being crippled by the west’s counter blockade. They had failed to anticipate the effects of a blockade by the west.

The Soviets lifted the blockade on the 12^th of May 1949.

However, the airlift continued until the 30^th of September.

The Numbers

The airlift was not just about dull statistics, there was real human tragedy and sacrifice. Eighty-three service men and civilian lost their life directly during the airlift. However, there were unknown numbers who simply disappeared during the Soviet terror that accompanied it.

Finally, in case you are wondering around 23 tons of candy were parachuted into Berlin.

Conclusion

The Berlin airlift was round one of the “cold war” and helped shape our current world by stopping what had appeared to be the irresistible western advance of communism.

The most notable outcomes were:

Harry Truman was re-elected President in 1948. (He was expected to lose by a landslide)
NATO was formed in 1949
West Germany was founded as a democratic federal republic in 1949
The Treaty of Rome was signed by 6 western European nations, including W. Germany in 1957 (This group would grow into the EU)
The Berlin Wall was raised in 1961
The lessons from the airlift led to the development of the modern military and civilian air transport systems.

General Clay arrived in Germany as a military governor, with ideas of applying harsh policies, he left as a hero, as did all the western service personnel.

General Tunner went back to his old job, whilst General LeMay claimed credit for the airlift success. History would correct this and Tunner is seen as the architect of the most successful airlift in history.

Gail Halvorsen went back to the US and married his sweetheart. He is the human face of the airlift, and no history is complete without his mention. He shows us how simple actions from pure intention, can move millions.

Prior to the airlift Berlin was considered the crime capital of the world and service personnel were warned not to go out alone at night, or they would have their throat cut. During and after the airlift their main concern was how they were going to drink all the free beer provided for them.

What can we take from this as project managers?

People matter – with the correct leadership and support great things can be achieved
Communicate your vision and get buy-in
Understand your stakeholders
Perform proper business analysis
Measure what matters
Like Tunner, you may have to bend the rules
Dare Greatly

American and Western service personnel gave much to help ensure freedom and liberty for the peoples of Western Europe. But one group of service personnel in these segregated services did not enjoy the same freedom and liberty when they returned to the United States. We will look at their history in the concluding post of the series.

NOTES

The Hump was an airlift between India and China during WWII, with part of the route flying over the Himalayas. (Hence The Hump). Tunner established his reputation by turning it into a success.¹

*I have used the terms Soviet, Soviet Union, and USSR interchangeably, to indicate the union of communist states governed from Moscow, from 1922 to 1991.

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The Tay Bridge Disaster Part 2 (The Nightmare)

Jim Benvie — Sun, 04 Jan 2026 02:26:52 +0000

Introduction

On the evening of the 28^th of December 1889, a violent storm brought down a section of the new Tay rail bridge, taking with it the Edinburgh train, killing all onboard.

The Nation was in shock, but Viscount Sandon, The President of the Board of Trade, wasted no time in opening a Court of Inquiry into the disaster.

There were three members:

Chairman: Henry Rothery (Commissioner of Wrecks)
William Yolland (Chief Inspector of Railways)
Willian H. Barlow (Professional Engineer)

The members travelled to Dundee and opened the Inquiry on Saturday 3^rd of January 1880, continuing on the 5^th and 6^th.

During these three days they visited the site and heard testimony from numerous witnesses.

As well as the Court there were also three principle interested parties, who as we would say today “lawyered-up”.

The Board of Trade
The North British Railway Company (N.B.R.C.)
Sir Thomas Bouch

The Initial Evidence

The Court heard from the various employees of the N.B.R.C., including John Watt and Thomas Barclay who we met at the opening of the previous post.

None of them had actually witnessed the disaster and could only provide background information.

Various other individual testified to the severity of the storm describing the damage to building and monument in and around Dundee.

All indicated it was the worst storm in living memory.

Testimony was taken from the salvage workers including the divers.

Further detailed information would have to await further analysis of the wreckage, and the Court was adjourned on the 6^th of January.

The Search for Witnesses

During the break in proceeding all interested parties sought witnesses who would support their case, when the hearings resumed.

The Court Reconvenes

The Court reconvened in London on the 26^th of February and started hearing testimony.¹

The first topic was the claim by a former Lord Provost² of Dundee that the trains travelled at speed well over the recommended 25mph and would often race the ferry.

This was reported to have caused severe oscillations which it was speculated may have led to structural instability.

The company called several rebuttal witnesses including numerous drivers who denied the claim.

Next was a review of the Wormit Foundry, which was damming.

David Swinfen tells us that the foundry foreman, Fergus Ferguson, made the mistake of telling the Court Chairman, “if I tried to explain it to you without you being a practical man you could never understand it”

He then proceeded to show himself to be unprofessional and incompetent.

It became clear that there was a total lack of quality control, from low quality materials to poor workmanship. There was also widespread use of filler to hide flaws in the casting.

Ferguson left the Inquiry with no credibility.

The Inquiry next looked at maintenance, where they again heard tales of oscillations when trains crossed the bridge. Painters and workmen told of bolt heads and bolts being found and not knowing if they had fallen or been left during construction.

Henry Noble had been appointed by Bouch, who had a contract to oversee the maintenance of the bridge, as maintenance supervisor.

Noble had originally joined the project as an inspector of the brickwork columns.

He was now responsible for everything apart from the train track.

He was a very conscientious man but was totally lacking in the experience to cope with the structural problems which became evident.

At one point he noted that some of the column ties had come loose and purchased metal with his own money to make wedges to take up the slack. This may well have made a bad situation worse.

Noble was certainly not qualified for his current job, however he was honest and conscientious, but that was not enough. He had been placed in an impossible position.

The Court heard from a number of experts regarding the winds in the Tay estuary.

First was Sir George Airy, The Astronomer Royal. (He had previously been consulted by Bouch and had advised that there was no need to consider wind loading in the design).

Despite his playing down the effects of the wind, other experts testified that the high wind loadings could be expected in the area of the bridge, and that they would act on large areas of the bridge simultaneously.

It is somewhat strange that British engineers did not take account of wind loading, since it was common to do so in both the USA and France. It was a hard lesson and they would on future projects.

Finally, Bouch was called and spent around 12 hours under questioning.

He vigorously defended his design and the members of his team. To his credit he also accepted full responsibility and at no time attempted to deflect blame on to his subordinates.

Despite a spirited defense, his reputation was destroyed.

In addition to the witnesses called, a number of the columns and the tie bars were sent for testing and all were found to fail well below the design and material limits.

The column lugs, where the tie bars were secured, failed at around 30% of the materials rated load. This was probably due to the fact that the bolt holes were cast, rather than bored, and were tapered, causing the load to be transferred to only a small area of the lug.³

The Final Report

Bizarrely there were two final reports, one from the two engineers, Yolland and Barlow, and a minority report by Rothery.

Both generally agreed on the causes of the disaster, but Rothery’ s report went further in assigning blame.

During the Inquiry Bouch had made the case that the bridge was brought down by one or more carriages striking the bridge, but neither report accepted that hypothesis.

The reports were presented to Parliament in June, and concluded the following:

The gale force winds brought down the bridge.
This was exacerbated by:
- Design limitations
- Substandard materials
- Poor maintenance
The stresses introduced by the train entering the high girders at the height of the storm, may have precipitated the final failure.

Bouch was blamed for his failures of design, and management during construction and subsequent maintenance.

His health quickly deteriorated, and he died 4 months after the Inquiery Report was presented to Parliament.

Modern Theories

There have been several modern postmortems on the disaster, but I will take a brief look at only two.

The first was the result of computer analysis by Tom Martin and Ian MacLeod published in 1995, which concludes that the bridge blew down.⁴

The second by Peter Lewis and Ken Reynolds published in 2002⁵, contends that the failure was due to metal fatigue, which was not something understood by Victorian engineers. They believe that the oscillations reported by many contemporary observers caused fatigue in the lugs and that the bridge would have failed without the storm.

Martin and MacLeod published a rebuttal in 2004⁶

They contend that there would not have been sufficient wear cycles during the life of the bridge to cause fatigue and maintain their original hypothesis that the wind brought the bridge down.

I have referenced the papers below so you can read the details and make up your own mind

Conclusion

There is no doubt that the storm brought down the bridge and that there was clearly a myriad extenuating circumstances, but what was the real reason?

Let’s try to do a 5 Why exercise:

Why did the Tay bridge collapse? It was blown down in a severe storm
Why? There were design and manufacturing
Why? The Engineer was trying to cut costs.
Why? He had a reputation for delivering cheap
Why? Because this was what the railway companies wanted.

Essentially the company employed the First Little Piggie, because he was cheap and predictably the Big Bad Wolf, “huffed and puffed and blew down their bridge of straw.”.

The North British Railway company may have failed to note the moral of The Three Little Pigs story, but they did recognize the Goose that laid the golden eggs.

As was detailed in the last post the bridge improved the Company’s profitability, customer share, stock value and was commercially a big success, despite the ultimate tragedy

Having dispensed with the services of Bouch, they immediately embarked on planning for a replacement Tay bridge, and a new Forth Bridge.

Both were ultimately built by the highly reputable William Arrol Company, who also went on to build Tower Bridge in London.

The Forth Bridge benefited from all the lessons learned on the first Tay Bridge and will be covered in detail in a later post, when we will look at how a bridge should be built.

Both have stood the test of time and today still carry many trains a day.

Top Lesson for Project Managers

As outlined above there were multiple physical reason for the disaster, but ultimately, they can all be traced back to the fact that there were systemic management and cultural failures.

Over confidence
Poor design choices
Poor management and supervision
Poor staff selection
Poor manufacturing control
Poor maintenance

Over confidence

Victorian engineering was at its height and was overflowing with confidence and hubris, anything was possible, nature could be tamed.

But, as the saying goes “Pride comes before a fall”, and it was a painful fall.

Bouch had sought advice regarding the required allowances for wind loading and was blithely told it was not a factor he need consider. (Indeed, by some of people who would later judge him)

He happily took the cheaper options, which pleased his clients.

Poor design choices

When questioned on a number of items during the Inquiry Bouch responded that the decision was made for reason of economy.

It is ethically incumbent for a project manager or professional engineer to make judgements based on the overall functionality and the safety of the end users of a product, and not on satisfying the client’s financial constraints.

This I appreciate is a difficult balance to maintain, and in the case of the bridge there was no single factor. Cost saving in one area may not have led to disaster, but together they led to failure.

The single-track design led to a flimsier structure.

This may not have been a problem had foundation issues not led to the replacement of the brick with iron columns.

Version 1 of the iron columns had 8 tubes
The final version was reduced to 6 tubes (To reduce the load on the foundations)
Although similar to the Belah viaduct, from the photographs, the Tay Bridge seems to have a much narrower base.
Having made the transition, it was decided to manufacture the castings on site at the Wormit foundry.
The lugs for the ties on the Belah viaduct were on bands attached to the columns, on the Tay they were cast with the columns
The holes in the lugs were tapered due to casting (resulting in the load being concentrated)
The tapered hole issue was compounded by using bolts too small for the minimum diameter
The hold down bolts were too short only penetrated two layers of the masonry base.

The key decision was the need to replace the brick columns with iron, and was driven by the foundation issues, but all the other issues seem to have been driven by cost.

Poor management, supervision and staff selection

In addition to the poor design choices the Inquiry revealed a general slackness in management and supervision, which was ultimately the responsibility of Bouch.

The selection of managers, supervisors and contractors was poor.

The boring contractor’s failure to determine the true nature of the riverbed. (How competent were they?)
Gerard Camphuis the Wormit foundry manager had no experience of foundry work. (He had originally been hired to work on the foundations of the bridge)
Fergus Ferguson the foundry supervisor revealed himself to be incompetent at the Inquiry
Even the honest and conscientious Henry Noble was placed in a position for which he was not competent.
The three contractors were the cheapest and we know that Charles de Bergue and Co., were in financial trouble at the time of the owner’s death, due to underpricing their bid.
The forced change of not one but two contractors is likely to have been detrimental.

Poor manufacturing control

The above staff and contractor choices resulted in and drove poor manufacturing control.

Poor maintenance

Lack of supervision by Bouch and Noble’s lack of knowledge and expertise led to poor and inefficient maintenance, and the inability to identify crucial problems

Final Thought

Bouch may have been the one with the dream, but he had a reputation for cheapness and there were indications from earlier contracts that he was not as attentive as he should have been.

Yet he was hired to build the longest bridge in the world and was also working on the design of the even more ambitious suspension bridge over the river Forth.

So, responsibility must finally rest with The North British Railway Company, for lack of judgment and failure to execute sufficient oversight.

What can we as project managers take from this tragedy?

Do not be overconfident
Remember your responsibility for end user safety
If there are major enforced changes, perform detailed risk analysis
Be aware of the cumulative effect of many small cost savings or changes
Employ good people, and utilize them appropriately
Develop a clear handover and maintenance program to ensure safe operation

My Grandfather used to referred to something that had been botched as “A Boucher”.

You don’t want your name to be a synonym for a “screw-up”.

The Bridge Timeline

NOTES

¹The fall of the Tay Bridge: p83-89

²A Lord Provost is similar to a City mayor

³Ibid: p91

⁴The Tay Bridge Disaster – A reappraisal based on modern analysis methods

⁵Forensic engineering – A reappraisal of the Tay Bridge Disaster

⁶The Tay Bridge Disaster Revisited

BIBLIOGRAPHY

The High Girders: John Prebble (1975)
The Tay Bridge Disaster – A reappraisal based on modern analysis methods: Martin and I.A. MacLeod (1995)
Engineering Dreams into Disaster – History of the Tay Bridge: Marion K. Pinsdorf (1997)
Forensic engineering – A reappraisal of the Tay Bridge Disaster: P.R. Lewis and K. Reynolds (2002)
The Tay Bridge Disaster Revisited: T. Martin and I.A. MacLeod (2004)
The Fall of the Tay Bridge: David Swinfen (2016)

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The Tay Bridge Disaster Part 1 (One Man’s Dream)

Jim Benvie — Mon, 29 Dec 2025 04:46:37 +0000

Introduction

Around 7:00 in the evening John Watt struggles through the worst storm he could remember to visit his friend Thomas Barclay, the signalman in the south box.

Relieved to have reached his destination John warms himself at the stove whilst looking out the window at the storm.

At 7:08 the signal bell rings to indicate that the Edinburgh train has just left St Fort.

Thomas signals the North box and receives an acknowledgment.

The train comes into view slowing down.

Thomas goes out on to the boarding, walking alongside the train, as the stoker reaches out to take the bridge baton, as the train moves past, he notices faces in the carriage windows.

It was 7:13 when he returned to the signal box and signaled the north box that the train was on the bridge, receiving an immediate acknowledgement. He then sends all clear to Wormit.

John who has been watching the bridge says, “there is something wrong with the train”. Thomas is not worried and says you will see it again soon.

Again, John say the train has gone over.

Thomas says “wait we’ll see her soon”

Still nothing so Thomas signaled the north box, despite repeated attempts there is no reply.

Now worried they go out and attempt to enter the bridge but the wind is too strong, and instead they walk along the coast, until the clouds clear and they see that all the high girders are down and the train with them.

It was 7:20 on Sunday the 28^th of December 1879.¹

As a boy growing up in Dundee, I heard stories of the infamous collapse of the first Tay bridge. Stories of imperfect castings filled with compound to hide the flaws, of incompetence and poor design.

It was no longer part of living memory, but the effect of the tragedy was clearly still felt by my grandparent’s generation whose parents had lived through it.

How could this happen to the longest bridge in the world and a symbol of Victorian engineering greatness?

The Railway Man

Thomas Bouch was a man of the railway age, born near Carlisle in NW England on the 25^th of February 1822.

Three years later saw the birth of steam powered railways with the opening of the Stockton to Darlington line, on 27^th of September 1825.

After showing an early interest in engineering Bouch took a job with an engineering company, but after a short time he moved to what would be his lifelong vocation, railway engineering. He even spent time as the engineer for the famous Stockton and Darlington railway.

He joined the Edinburgh and Northern Railway as engineer in January 1849 and was introduced to his dream of bridging the two major estuaries blocking the route of the east coast rail line.

Meanwhile, Bouch put his energy into developing and implementing the first roll-on, roll-off ferries, on both the Forth and Tay crossings. This had huge savings in labour, removing the need to load and unload freight for the ferry crossings.

In 1854 he proposed to the board of the Edinburgh and Northern Railway, a bridge over the river Tay but it was rejected as a pipedream.

He then left the company and set-up as an independent railway engineer.

Over the next two decades he designed and built numerous railways and bridges, in his native northern England and Scotland, establishing a reputation for delivering cheap and functional railways.

But the dream persisted

The Dream

The idea of bridging the Tay was again mooted in 1863, when a local solicitor¹ held a public meeting where Bouch presented the case. A committee was formed, and a prospectus issued. It even progressed as far as a Parliamentary Bill³which failed due to opposition from numerous quarters.

The idea surfaced again in 1866 after much “horse trading” had overcome most of the opposition but failed this time due to a financial crisis within The North British Railway Company. This resulted in the resignation of the Chairman Richard Hodgson a main driver of the project.

Fortunately, Hodgson’s replacement John Stirling was an advocate for the bridge, and recognized the strong business case.

In 1869 he and Bouch met with Dundee City Council and business leaders to present the case, and this time there was strong support. Subscriptions were taken and a bill presented in Parliament.

On the 15^th of July 1870, the bill passed.

Bouch could now turn his dream into reality.

The Planning

Some planning was already underway prior to passing of the bill, but now everything could move forward.

Bouch had also been working on plans for a suspension bridge for the river Forth and had sought wind data and was advised that that this would not be an issue, so there was no serious consideration of wind loading in the design.

He also commissioned a company to conduct survey boring and the report indicated solid rock about 20 feet down across most of the proposed site.

The design was almost two miles long with 89 lattice design spans of varying lengths, similar to that of the Belah viaduct. All this to be supported by brick columns except for those at the Dundee end (north) which would be cast iron.

One other factor, which attracted considerable criticism, was the fact that the bridge would be single track giving it a flimsy appearance.

This like many other factors which will become evident later were done for cost saving reasons.

The Search for a Contractor

Because of the size and complexity of the project there were only seven bidders for the contract, of which only three met the budget estimate.

The selected contractor was Butler and Pitts, but they withdrew on the death of Mr Pitts.

The second choice was Charles de Bergue and Co., who commenced work in early 1871. However, things did not run smoothly and two years into the project Charles de Bergue died, and his wife was forced to relinquish the contact.

There then followed a period of months when work was stalled until a third contractor Hopkins Gilkes and Co. was assigned. Continuity was maintained by the retention of the site manager Albert Grothe.⁴

The Construction

Construction and accommodation facilities were built on the south shore at Wormit, along with a jetty to support the construction work.

Construction commenced January 1873.

The first order of business was to install the piers upon which the bridge columns would stand.

Prefabricated cylinders or “caissons” were floated out to their predetermined positions and then sunk vertically to the riverbed. The upper part of the caisson was sealed, with an airlock to allow access, and the water pumped out. A positive pressure was maintained within the caisson to prevent the river water reentering.

The workmen entered through the airlock and descended to the base where they dug away the material of the riverbed, allowing the caisson to sink deeper into the mud until it rested on bedrock. Once this was accomplished and the caisson was level, it would be lined with brickwork and then filled with concrete.

Caisson work was extremely hazardous for several reasons:

The caisson could suddenly sink, pinning the workers under the mud⁵
The outside water could rush in and drown the workers⁶
To prevent water entering the caisson a positive pressure was maintained at all times, and like modern divers the workmen could suffer the bends when they returned to the surface⁷

Work progressed from the south shore until pier 15, when it was discovered that the boring reports were inaccurate and what was reported as bedrock was in fact a compacted gravel layer.

This layer was insufficient to support the foundations and it was found that despite increasing the size of the piers they would sink under load.

The original specification called for a load of 6.5 tons /sq. ft. which had to be reduces to 2.75 tons/sq. ft. to achieve stability.

This meant that the piers could no longer support the brick columns.

Bouch fell back on a design he had used before, on the Belah viaduct, with cast iron tubes braced with iron bars. Originally each column would comprise eight cast iron tubes but due to space limitations on the pier the final design only included six.⁸

It is interesting to note that there were some design differences from the Belah viaduct, and the columns looked much less sturdy.

The redesign meant that there was a requirement for vast quantities of castings to make the columns. It was decided to make them on site at a foundry specifically built in Wormit for the purpose. There were a number of poor practices involved and claims of defects in the castings being concealed. However, we will look at that in more detail when we cover the Board of Trade inquiry, in the net post.

During the remainder of the construction things moved along relatively well except for one incident where high winds blew two of the lattice girders into the river during installation operations. One was scrapped and the other returned to the factory for repair and later use.

The Inspection

The bridge was completed, and test loaded with several locomotives in September 1877.

The Board of Trade inspector Maj. General Hutchinson visited the bridge for three days in February 1878, and after testing and inspecting it passed it for passenger traffic. He did note that he would like to observe the bridge in high wind conditions, but that was never done.

The bridge was opened with much fanfare on the 31^st of May 1878, and regular services commenced on the 1^st of June.

It was a successful first year for John Stirling and the North British Railway Company.

With the new bridge they now carried 84% of the Edinburgh/Dundee passenger traffic, freight was up 40%, and the company stock had risen by 30%.⁹

Everything was looking rosy, but the best was yet to come.

Queen Victoria travelled south across the bridge on the 20^th of June 1879, and seven days later she “knighted” Bouch at Winsor Castle.

The new Sir Thomas was now planning the next stage of the dream, bridging the river Forth.

In the confusion after the collapse it was initially thought there were as many as 300 dead. The number finally settled to 75 which was arrived at by counting tickets. However, the Tay Bridge Disaster Memorial Trust, arrived at the number of 59, based not on tickets, but on reports by the Railway company and relatives of the victims, and those are the 59 names that appear on the 2013 memorial.

The Opening and Operation

The Dark Clouds

During this period there were some ominous warning signs and indicators that all was not well with the bridge, but they were ignored or minimized as all concerned basked in the glory of the longest bridge in the world and a rising stock price.

Since much of this only came to light during the Board of Trade inquiry, we will examine the details in the next post.

The Tragedy

The search for bodies and salvage operations continued for some time but this did not prevent other actions being taken:

The Board of Trade Inquiry held it’s first meeting on the 3^rd of January 1880
A relief fund was immediately established to help the relatives of the victims
The North British Railway Co. started planning the repair or replacement of the bridge

Conclusion

The dream had turned into a nightmare, innocent lives were lost, and families devastated, how could such an undertaking have ended so badly?

The reasons will be explored in the next post which will review the Board of Trade inquiry findings as well as modern engineering studies which shed new light on the subject.

NOTES

¹John Prebble opens his book the High Girders with this account of the disaster, from the perspective of two North British Railway Company workers in the signal box at the south end of the bridge.

²Solicitor is the name usually given to lawyers in Scotland.

³At this time any new railway line or major railway infrastructure required its own Parliamentary Bill.

⁴The Fall of the Tay Bridge: p34-36

⁵Ibid p43

⁶Ibid p44 Details an account of an explosive decompression which drowned 6 men when the water rushed in

⁷The bends, or “caisson disease” as it was known at the time, was not well understood, and there were no decompression procedures. The workers simply exited the airlock at the end of the shift. When repeated over many weeks it could result in crippling disability

⁸Ibid p46

⁹Ibid p62/63

BIBLIOGRAPHY

The Fall of the Tay Bridge: David Swinfen (2016)
The High Girders: John Prebble (1975)

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The Berlin Airlift Part 2 (The Allies Strike Back)

Jim Benvie — Sat, 27 Dec 2025 01:11:11 +0000

Introduction

With the blockade in place the Soviets were confident that they could force the westerners out of Berlin.

In the western capitals there was consternation and a feeling inevitability that they would have to leave Berlin. That it would be better to leave sooner rather than be seen to be forced out later.

General Clay (the U.S. Military governor of Germany), had been due to retire, and control of Germany passed from the military to the State Department. However, with the looming crisis it was decided that he would remain in post and the transition to civilian governance be postponed.

On the imposition of the blockade Clay proposed driving an armoured column through to Berlin. A solution so fraught with problems, the most serious of which was war with the USSR, that it was quickly vetoed by higher authority.

Although there had been regular flights to Berlin, Clay, and Robertson (His British counterpart) decided to use the available aircraft to start ferrying material to Berlin whilst waiting for a political decision.

The first flight of the airlift took place on June 26^th.A young pilot was ordered to fly to Berlin although it was already late. On landing in Berlin, he was ordered to return immediately the plane was unloaded.

On his return he was met by his commanding officer who asked how the flights had gone. When he replied there was no problem, that it was routine. His CO said, “great the Soviet had indicated they would shoot planes down”.

So, it began!

Politics

Although President Truman privately committed to staying in Berlin with his now famous comment, “We stay in Berlin Period!” there were no forceful public statements.

In the absence of public statements from the government Clay and Hawley, (Military Governor of Berlin), did make statements about not being forced out.

Within the US political and military establishments there was a general feeling that an airlift would not succeed and would certainly not be a practical solution after the north European winter set in.
With strong encouragement from Ernest Bevin the British Foreign Secretary and the Royal Air Force (RAF), it was decided increase the resources available for the airlift, if nothing else it could buy time whilst a diplomatic solution was achieved.

Clay contacted General Curtis LeMay (Head of the Airforce in Europe) and asked if they could ship coal to Berlin. According to legend LeMay replied that the air force could ship anything anywhere.

Operation Vittles

LeMay placed General Joseph Smith in charge of the operation, with the comment that it would only be for a few weeks.

Smith named the Airlift “Operation Vittles”, (The British designation was “Plain Fare”) and set about getting more men and planes.

Initially the airlift was operating the ancient C-47 or Dakota, indeed some were still in desert camouflage from the North African campaign, or the black and white striped wings of the D-Day landings.

Apart from being old the main limiting factor of the C-47 was its low payload.

Clay and Smith immediately requested the newer and larger C-54s

Crews and aircraft were transferred in for the U.S., and as far afield as Hawaii and Guam. The British were initially able to ramp-up more quickly, due to proximity, but were soon surpassed by the American effort.

As more men and aircraft began to arrive the facilities at the bases were quickly overwhelmed and living conditions deteriorated.

Conditions for the families left behind at short notice were also poor and there were not adequate provisions made to ensure the welfare of families often newly arrived at overseas locations.

Very quickly men and machines started to deteriorate, and the spares were quickly depleted. The spares stock levels were set for normal operations and not for the round the clock operations now in effect.

Despite all the frantic effort the airlift was not coming close to the 4500 Tons/day required to meet Berlin’s needs. (1200 Tons/day was the best so far)

With requests for more planes, discussions continued as to the best course of action. Despite President Truman’s “We stay in Berlin Period!”, the general feeling was to get out.

Few in the military believed that the airlift was viable, and the Airforce did not want to pour resources into what they saw as a forlorn hope.

They wanted to get back to the “real” business of the Airforce.

There was a genuine concern, that if most of the counties transport aircraft were in Germany, they could all be destroyed if war occurred, crippling the US war effort.

In addition to the lack of resources the runways in Berlin were deteriorating rapidly.

The main organizational problem was that the operation was being run by “bomber” people and not Transport Command.

If something did not change the prophets of doom would be proven correct.

The New Man

Did anyone have experience running an airlift?

Happily, YES.

General William Tunner who was, as he put it, currently warming the bench at the Pentagon, had run an extraordinarily successful airlift operation from India to China during WWII.

This airlift was called “The Hump” because the route from India to China crossed the Himalayas. The airlift was supporting our Chinese allies who were also fighting the Japanese.

When Tunner took command in September 1944, the Hump was the graveyard of military careers.

The Hump was sustaining casualties higher than those of the bomber group in Europe, and consequently moral and discipline were low.

The route was extremely hazardous and when it was not passing high over the Himalayas it was over impenetrable jungle.

Any crews force landing or bailing out had little chance of survival and recovery.

Tunner was a workaholic and expected the same from his team and would earn the nickname of “Willie the Whip”.

Tunner moved in and immediately imposed discipline and structure.

Aircraft were better maintained
Crews were better rested
Crews were trained in safety and jungle survival
Procedures were put in place
Targets and statistics were used to control and motivate

Accident rates were lowered even though the number of flights and the overall tonnage increased dramatically. By the end of the war Tunner had created an efficient smooth-running operation.

Airforce recognized the need for change and Tunner was appointed to head the airlift.

With his hand-picked team he headed for Germany, arriving on the 28^th of July 1948.

He reported to General LeMay and was received in a frosty manner.

His duties were spelled out and it was made clear to him that he would report through the Airforce command structure and was not to have direct contact with the other services or the civilian authorities.

He and his staff then went to the offices assigned to them.

They found a ramshackle building, the rooms bare except for rubbish, and a layer of dust and cobwebs.

A rather inauspicious start.

Could “Willie the Whip” turn things around?

Conclusion

The western allies were in a bad situation, they had not anticipated the Soviet move, and had no contingency plans in place. There had been little, or no risk analysis done.

Even if one considers the Soviet blockade as a “Black Swan “event there should have been some provisions in place for such an event.

Responsibility for the airlift was placed in the hands of a group, who did not believe it could succeed and did not consider it the “real” work of the Airforce.

Additionally, the group given the task were also not competent to carry it out.

What can this teach us as project managers?

Perform proper risk analysis and have a mitigation plan in place.
When assigning personnel
- Ensure they are committed to the project
- Ensure they are competent to carry out the work
- Ensure that they get the full support of other departments
- Ensure that they are given the support and resources

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A Berlin Christmas 1948

Jim Benvie — Thu, 25 Dec 2025 03:48:52 +0000

Introduction

On a chilly December in 1948, Berlin was more than a city locked behind a blockade—it was a place where hope flickered in the frigid winter air. As the world watched, service men and women took to the skies, not just to deliver the regular vital supplies, but to bring a touch of holiday magic to thousands of German children denied a traditional Christmas. Reminding us that even in the darkest times, acts of kindness can light up the world.

Operation Santa Claus

As the blockade stretched on and the winter nights grew longer, hope for a joyful Christmas seemed nonexistent for Berlin’s children. Yet, inspired by compassion and a determination to lift spirits, Air Force personnel initiated a heartfelt campaign back home. They called for donations—simple gifts, toys, candies, and warm essentials—to bring a sense of normalcy and cheer to a generation marked by war and hardship. Their appeal did not go unanswered. From across the Atlantic and Western Europe, packages began to arrive, each filled with the goodwill of strangers who believed that even in the grimmest times, children deserved to experience the magic of Christmas.

In the days leading to Christmas, these gifts were carefully loaded onto the planes delivering life-sustaining food and coal into the city. Alongside the rations, parcels of hope came to Berlin, signaling that the world had not forgotten its youngest victims. The excitement grew as word spread that, for one special day, General Clay had ordered electricity to remain on in the Western sectors, ensuring homes would be lit and warm for the festivities.

When Christmas Day arrived, the Allied sector abounded with celebrations. Churches and makeshift halls became scenes of laughter and joy. Santa Clauses—some in uniform, others in borrowed red suits—handed out the precious gifts. For many children, it was their first taste of chocolate, their first new toy in years, or simply a reason to believe in kindness again. These moments of generosity not only brightened Christmas but also restored hope, showing that compassion could break through even the coldest barriers.

Weihnachtsbaum

The Christmas tree, so central to festive tradition, was a rare luxury in Berlin that winter, with shortages making it impossible for every family to have one. Yet, in a twist of fate, as CBS correspondent Lary LeSueur reported on 22 December 1948, it was the Russians (Soviets) who unexpectedly provided the solution.

“… It’s a funny thing about the Christmas tree situation here. There aren’t enough trees in the Western sector for all the Berliners who want them. And naturally we couldn’t allow space on the airlift for inedible trees. But no German family would be without one at this time.

Well aware of this, the Russians imported 350,000 Christmas trees into their sector, and lo and behold, those little trees are appearing for street corner sale in this Western sector now. The Germans are smuggling them in from the East by subway and trolley car. The Russians are so displeased that today they’ve announced spot checks of all subway passengers carrying food parcels or trees across the line…” ²

USO Christmas Show

American troops stationed in Germany also received a boost in morale thanks to the USO Christmas show. Legendary entertainer Bob Hope led the USO Christmas tour, bringing laughter and music to servicemen and women far from home, with special performances in Berlin. This visit marked the beginning of a beloved tradition, as Hope and other performers would go on to make regular holiday appearances for U.S. military personnel deployed overseas, ensuring that the spirit of Christmas and support from back home reached those on the front lines as well.

Irving Berlin, Jinx Falkenburg and Bob Hope

Conclusion

In reflecting on these stories, we are reminded that even during periods of hardship, acts of kindness and a focus on human connection can foster resilience and hope. The Berlin Airlift’s Christmas moments serve as lasting proof that compassion can be a powerful force for overcoming adversity.

NOTES

NOTES

¹General Clay was the US Military Governor of Germany.

²From the Bill Downs website:

https://www.billdownscbs.com/2016/12/1948-berliners-celebrate-christmas-as.html

³United Service Organizations – A Non-profit offering support and recreation to US military personnel and families. The Bob Hope Tours were under its umbrella.

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The Berlin Airlift 01 (The Soviet Menace)

Jim Benvie — Tue, 23 Dec 2025 21:31:26 +0000

Introduction

The Berlin Airlift is one of my favorite historical projects, and this is the first of four posts on the topic.

On a spring day in April 1945 victorious allied units linked-up along the river Elbe.

It was a day of celebration, American, British, Canadian, and Soviet soldiers came together in joy and friendship.

Who could have imagined that only three years later they would be on the brink of war?

How could such a change have taken place?

There was still some hard fighting before the war was finally over.

In Berlin, a ragtag collection of Wehrmacht¹, Waffen SS², and Volkssturm³ units prepared to face the final Soviet assault. Children as young as twelve went to the front in a futile attempt turn the Soviet tide. Heavily outnumbered and out gunned they fought street by street until finally the Soviets stormed the Reichstag building, taking it room by room.

On May 2^nd, the war was effectively over, and the red flag flew over the Reichstag.

But it did not end there. The Soviet’s unleashed a violent reign of rape and pillage on the capital which continued for weeks. This as we shall see would rebound on them in later years.

Whilst the fighting was still proceeding the allied leaders, (Roosevelt [USA], Churchill [UK], Stalin [Soviet Union], often referred to as the “Big Three”, met in Yalta to determine how a post war Germany would be governed.

During these meetings Roosevelt, pivoted towards Stalin and left Churchill, feeling isolated. This was the start of an American policy of friendship and cooperation with the Soviet Union and a move away from the old imperial power.

Following Germany’s surrender, they met again at Potsdam in July, to thrash out the final details.

This time Harry Truman represented the US, replacing the Late President Roosevelt who had died in April.

It was agreed that Germany would be governed as a single unit, administered by an Allied Control Council, with the three powers having a seat and a veto. France was later added to the council

Germany would be divided into four zones of occupation, and Berlin, the German capital although deep in the Soviet sector, would be similarly divided and governed.

Little thought was given to access rights to Berlin, but provision was made for three 20-mile-wide air corridors from the western zones of occupation to the western sectors of Berlin.

The members of the Allied Control Council were:

Lucius Clay (USA)
Georgy Zhukov followed by General Vasily Sokolovsk (USSR)
Brian Robertson (UK)
Marie-Pierre Koenig (France)

The members of the Kommandatura Berlin were:

(Later Gen.) Frank Howley (USA)
General Alexander Kotikov (USSR)
General Geoffrey Bourne (UK)
General Jean Ganeval (France)

Both bodies were military governorships.

As the occupation commenced the allies were determined not, as they saw it, to repeat the mistakes made after WWI. The intent of all the allies was to ensure that the Germans:

Got the message that they had lost the war.
That they would never again threaten their neighbors.
That they would pay the allies reparations.
That they would become a peaceful democratic country. (USSR as would be seen later did not really want the democratic part.)

American servicemen posted to occupied Germany were warned not to fraternize with the German civilians, because it was emphasized that they could not be trusted.

One example should suffice to illustrate the attitude towards Germans.

On bases waste food was doused in petrol (gasoline) and burned to prevent German civilians scavenging.

This attitude would soften over time, but it was not until late 1947 that there were widespread efforts, by the western allies, to engage the Germans.

The occupation started with high hopes of friendship and cooperation between the allies.

Elections were duly held in 1946, and despite Soviet expectations the results favored non-communist parties. This was especially true in Berlin where the defeat was overwhelming. The actions of their troops in 1945 had come back to haunt them.

The Soviets used their veto to prevent Ernst Reuter, a strong anti-communist, from assuming his role as mayor of Berlin. (More of him later)

It was not long before there were signs that the Soviets had their own agenda and were just waiting for the US troops to go home.

Over the next year they subverted the governments in various countries and replaced them with communist regimes sympathetic to the USSR. This was done by various underhand methods, bribery, violence, and abuse of their power as the occupying authority.

Winston Churchill once again called out the aggressor, in his famous speech at Westminster College, Missouri, on 1^st March 1946

But still the allies did nothing

See the short video below to understand the pattern of Soviet annexation.

In February 1948, the soviets engineered the overthrow of the democratic government in Czechoslovakia, and on 10^th March the country’s President Jan Masaryk, was reported to have committed suicide, under extremely suspicious circumstances.

Finally, the alarm bells started to ring all over the west. The west was now in the same position that Britain and France had been in 1938, the appeasement had to stop.

The western Europeans had signed a mutual protection pact, but without the US, which still had large isolationist factions, they were not hopeful of stemming any Soviet invasion.

The Soviets now directed their efforts to Berlin, by harassing the city government, seizing opponents (who simply disappeared, even from the western sectors of the city).

The Allied Control Council, and the Kommandatura, ceased to be functioning bodies, and became a vehicle for Soviet propaganda and grandstanding.

General Clay warned Washington of the deterioration and that there was a possibility of war. There were discussions of evacuating western civilians, but Clay cautioned that this would politically play into the Soviet’s hands.

British Foreign Secretary Ernest Bevin although a member of a socialist government, was vehement opponent of the USSR, and sought to rally the western powers, to oppose what was obviously an effort to drive them from Berlin.

By early 1948 the situation was deteriorating and the three western occupying powers and the three Benelux countries (Belgium, Netherlands, and Luxemburg), held a conference in London to discuss the future of Germany and ultimately Europe.

The outcome of the conference was that the three western occupation zones would be combined to form a democratic federal republic.

The Reichsmark which was currently in use in all parts of Germany was so devalued, that American cigarettes were a more stable method of exchange. (This desperate situation was not helped by poor currency management on the part of the Soviets.)

It was therefore decided to issue a new currency, the “Deutsche Mark”, in all western sectors

At the Allied Control Council meeting on the 20^th March General Sokolovsk, asked the other representatives for details of the outcome of the conference.

They indicated that they would need clearance from their governments to discuss the matter.

Sokolovsk used this as a pretext to walk out of the meeting, effectively dissolving the council.

The Soviets now increased the level of intimidation applied to the Berlin government. Western leaning members were harassed and beaten. They also instigated a propaganda campaign to drive a wedge between the Berliners and the western allies.

Transport between the west and Berlin was increasingly disrupted, and at times halted for several days. With trains being forced to return to the west.

There was now talk within the western governments and military about withdrawing from Berlin. However General Clay insisted that any withdrawal would play into the Soviet’s hands.

Things continued to stumble along, but it was apparent something had to give.

On the 16^th of June, the Soviets engineered a walkout from the Kommandatura, closing the last official East/West governing body.

The western allies introduced the Deutsche Mark, on the 21^st June.

Shortly afterwards on the 24^th June the Soviets announced the closure of all land and water links between the west and Berlin.

The Berlin Blockade had begun.

How would the western allies respond?

Conclusion

What lessons can we learn as project managers from the western handling of the prelude to the Blockade?

The western allies were not clear on what they wanted to achieve, apart from making the Germans pay?

Despite the recent lesson of Hitler, they let the Soviets (who did have a clear idea what they wanted) annex country after country and use brutal tactics in Berlin.

Like Hitler they would continue if it were working.

The U.S., which was realistically the only western power who could stand up to the Soviets, for too long continued the policy of friendship with the Soviets, in the belief working together would become easier.

What could have helped.

Better business analysis and a clear business plan.
A clear scope.
A good understanding of the stakeholders.

Specifically identify the hostile stakeholders and manage accordingly

Notes

Wehrmacht¹ The German Army.

Waffen SS² The military branch of the SS.

Volkssturm³ The “Home Guard”, or Militia.

Note: I am using the terms Soviet, Soviet Union, and USSR interchangeably

The post The Berlin Airlift 01 (The Soviet Menace) appeared first on TyauvinOn Solutions LLC.

The History PM: Lessons from the Past for Today’s Project Managers

Jim Benvie — Tue, 18 Nov 2025 01:50:09 +0000

What does a medieval king have to do with your next big project?

At first glance, the world of the Scottish King Robert the Bruce might seem lightyears away from your busy life as modern project manager. But dig a little deeper, and you’ll find that the heart of every project—past or present—are people. Their needs, wants, obstacles, and triumphs are timeless, even if the tools we use have changed.

That’s the concept behind “The History PM”—a fresh approach to project management that taps into the lessons of history. Instead of simply mimicking best practices or following a rigid playbook, we will explore historical figures and moments to discover what they can teach us about leadership, resilience, and creative problem-solving. While we won’t be charging into battle “with fire and sword” like Robert the Bruce, we can learn from his ability to identify and engage with tough stakeholders.

By examining challenges outside our usual experience, we expand our thinking and uncover new strategies that are both effective and ethical.

Mixing the stories of the past with today’s project challenges lets us escape the procedural strait jackets and unleash our creativity.

History isn’t just a list of dates—it’s a treasure chest of insights waiting to be opened.

Whether you’re a seasoned project manager or a history buff, this journey promises inspiration and practical wisdom.

Consider “The History PM” as your modern-day Aesop’s Fables helping you to navigate your projects.

Be ready to look beyond the obvious and discover solutions you never imagined?

Join me on this adventure into the past, and let’s create the future together.

The post The History PM: Lessons from the Past for Today’s Project Managers appeared first on TyauvinOn Solutions LLC.

Getting back up and running

Jim Benvie — Tue, 11 Nov 2025 04:33:32 +0000

After a website rebuild, I am working to restore the earlier blog posts.

I will accomplish this over the next few weeks and add new content as available.

I am currently working on a Deliberate Disruptor Workshop and will be posting news and content.

I look forward to your comments and suggestions.

All the best

Jim Benvie

(The History PM)

The post Getting back up and running appeared first on TyauvinOn Solutions LLC.

TyauvinOn Solutions LLC

The Berlin Airlift Part 4 (New Hope)

Introduction

A New Nation

A House Divided

World War One

Members of the Harlem Hell-fighters (369th) displaying the Croix de Guerre

World War Two

Post War

Conclusion

Top Lesson for Project Managers

NOTES

The Berlin Airlift Part 3 (The Colossus Awakens)

Introduction

Measure Everything

The Candy Bomber

Tegel

Maintenance

Loading and Unloading

Cargo

The People

The Candy Bomber

The Politician

The Cartoonist

The General

Victory

The Numbers

Conclusion

NOTES

The Tay Bridge Disaster Part 2 (The Nightmare)

Introduction

The Initial Evidence

The Search for Witnesses

The Court Reconvenes

The Final Report

Modern Theories

Conclusion

Top Lesson for Project Managers

The Bridge Timeline

NOTES

BIBLIOGRAPHY

The Tay Bridge Disaster Part 1 (One Man’s Dream)

Introduction

The Railway Man

The Dream

The Planning

The Search for a Contractor

The Construction

The Inspection

The Opening and Operation

The Dark Clouds

The Tragedy

Conclusion

NOTES

BIBLIOGRAPHY

The Berlin Airlift Part 2 (The Allies Strike Back)

Introduction

Politics

Operation Vittles

The New Man

Conclusion

A Berlin Christmas 1948

Introduction

Operation Santa Claus

Weihnachtsbaum

USO Christmas Show

Irving Berlin, Jinx Falkenburg and Bob Hope

Conclusion

NOTES

The Berlin Airlift 01 (The Soviet Menace)

Introduction

Conclusion

Notes

The History PM: Lessons from the Past for Today’s Project Managers

Getting back up and running

Members of the Harlem Hell-fighters (369^th) displaying the Croix de Guerre